English Learning

Parts of Speech

Pronouns

Verbs

Adjectives

Adverbs

Conjunctions

Prepositions

Interjections

Phrases

Clauses

Sentences

Common Mistakes

The Introduction of Nouns  

A noun is any word that defines a person, place, or 
thing in a sentence.
 
Nouns give names to:

Concrete Things:  Mary lost her books.
Abstract Ideas:  His philosophy is really odd.
Abstract Qualities:  He says that he lacks sensitivity.
Feelings:  She feels great joy when she watches TV.
Actions:  Parking won't be difficult in Toronto.
People:  Mary Smith is project manager.
Animals: What kind of bear is Teddy Bear?
Places:  University of Toronto is located in Toronto.

Common and Proper Nouns  

Nouns can be divided into two categories: common nouns 
and proper nouns. 

Common Nouns are the name for ordinary things. Common nouns 
refer to any of a class of people, places, or things. For 
example, table, cat, tree, and country.

Proper Nouns are the name of someone or something that is 
usually imagined as UNIQUE and they are ALWAYS CAPITALIZED. 
For example, President Bush, Toronto, Wall Street, Toshiba, 
and McDonalds.

Mass and Count Nouns  

Every noun can be divided into count noun (or countable noun) 
and mass noun (or uncountable noun).
 
Count Nouns are nouns that can be quantified or counted 
with a number. Here are some examples:

Names of persons, animals, plants, insects, and their parts: 
a girl, a cat, a rose, an ear, three girls, five cats, twelve 
roses, and two ears.

Objects with a definite shape: a building, a balloon, a house, 
an octopus, four buildings, six balloons, four houses, and two 
octopi.

Units of measurement and words of classification: a gram, a pound, 
a piece, a lump, an item, a bit, a family, a state, a language, 
a phrase, and  a word.

Some abstract words: a hindrance, a scheme, an idea, a plan, a 
taboo, and a rest.
 

Mass Nouns

Mass Nouns are uncountable by a number. Mass nouns are quantified 
by a word that indicates amount. 
 
Some examples:

Materials, Food, Metals, and natural qualities: bread, cotton, 
wood, lightness, adolescence

Names of liquids, gases, and substances made of many small 
particles: cappuccino, oil, smoke, oxygen, rice, sugar, salt, 
cement, gravel

Names of Languages: English, Spanish, French, Latin, Japanese, 
Chinese

Most gerunds : looking, listening, swimming, running, anticipating

Remember that a number cannot be used to quantify a mass noun. 
Incorrect: four woods, one rice

To measure or classify mass nouns use "of" after a measurement: a 
foot of wood, a pound of rice, a bar of chocolate, a piece of music, 
a bag of money

The Introduction of Pronouns  

Pronouns are words that is used in place of a noun or noun phrase.   
 

Personal Pronouns are the most commonly used pronouns.

Singular personal pronouns: I, me, you, she, her, he, him, it
Plural personal pronouns: we, us, you, they, them

Example: Mary baked a cake for Joe = She baked it for him.   


Possessive Pronouns are personal pronouns that show ownership or 
possession.

Singular possessive pronouns: my, mine, your, yours, his, her, 
hers, its Plural possessive pronouns: our, ours, your, yours, 
their, theirs

Example: I found Jack's book = I found his book.   


Demonstrative Pronouns call attention to their antecedents. 
An antecedent is the word or words to which a pronoun refers.

Singular demonstrative pronouns: this, that
Plural demonstrative pronouns: these, those

Example: The big computer is his = That is his computer.   


Reflexive Pronouns reflect the action back to the noun or 
pronoun that has just been named (ends in -self or -selves).

Singular reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself...
Plural reflexive pronouns: ourselves, themselves, yourselves

Example: She will find it herself.   

Hint: When a pronoun is used in a sentence, it should always 
be clear to what or to whom the pronoun is referring. Too many 
pronouns in a sentence can be very confusing:  
Jack went there to do that, but he didn't know where she was. 

Pronoun/Antecedent Agreement  

A pronoun is a substitute for a noun. The pronouns or nouns 
that they refer to are called antecedents. A pronoun and its 
antecedent are in agreement if they are both singular or both 
plural.

Example: Mary finished readig her book.   
 

Frequent misuse of plural pronouns occur with two types of 
singular antecedents. They are indefinite pronouns and generic 
nouns. 


Indefinite Pronouns refer to nonspecific persons or things. 
They are any, either, everything, no one, each, anybody, 
everybody, neither, someone, anyone, everyone, none, and 
something.
 

Example: In class everyone does his or her [not their] homework.

 
Generic Nouns represent a typical member or any member of a 
group, such as a typical student or any lawyer.

Example: Every student must work hard if he or she wants to 
pass the exam. 

To correct a mistakenly plural pronoun referring to a singular 
general noun, you can do one of the three things mentioned above.

Suggestions for Working with Generic Nouns

1) Treat collective nouns as singular unless the meaning is 
clearly plural.  Collective nouns include such words as: jury, 
committee, crowd, family, audience, couple, troop, team, class.

Ordinarily the group functions as a unit, so the noun should be 
considered singular; however, if the members of the group 
function as individuals, the noun should be treated as plural.

Example: The O.J. Simpson jury has reached its decision.
Compare: The Illini crowd clapped their hands.


2) Compound antecedents connected by "and" should be treated as 
plural.

Example: Jack and Joe climbed up a hill and fetched their pail 
of water. 


3) When compound antecedents are connected by "or" or "nor" (or 
by "either...or" or "neither...nor"), make the pronoun agree with 
the nearer antecedent.

Examples:
Either Jack or Mary should be fired from her job.
Neither the art student nor the computer majors could remember 
their schedules.

Noun and Pronoun Case  

Case refers to how nouns and pronouns are used in relation to 
the other words in a sentence. The three cases are subjective, 
objective, and possessive. 

 
Subjective Case is sometimes called the nominative case. A noun 
or pronoun is in the subjective when it is used as the subject 
of the sentence or as a predicate noun. A predicate noun follows 
a form of the "be" verb, and it renames the subject of the 
sentence. Here are some examples:

Mary hopes to finish her homework tonight.

Joe danced in the statewide competition.

She is a clown. (The word clown is a predicate noun)   


Objective Case is a noun or pronoun that is used as a direct 
object, an indirect object, or an object of the preposition.

My sister prepared the dinner.

His cat crawled under the table.

The teacher gave us the money back. 


Possessive Case is a noun or pronoun that is used to show 
ownership of an object. Here are two examples:

Tom washed Mary's bag.

Where did you find his pen? 


        A Chart of Pronoun Cases 
---------------------------------------
Subjective   Objective    Possessive 
--------------------------------------- 
I            Me           My, Mine 
You          You          Your, Yours 
He           Him          His 
She          Her          Her, Hers 
It           It           Its 
We           Us           Our, Ours  
They         Them         Their, Theirs 
--------------------------------------- 

Principal Parts of Verbs  

The three principal parts of verbs are the present tense form, 
the past tense form, and the past participle. (The present 
participle or "-ing" form is sometimes considered a fourth 
principal part.)   


Present Tense indicates an action in the present:

Now the movie begins.

Jack walks to school.   


Past Tense indicates an action that occurred in the past:

We wanted to buy the book.

The baby blew a bubble.   



The Past Participle can be used as an adjective or modifier. 
It is typically formed by adding 'd' or 'ed' to the base form. 
Many times, this form is identical to the past tense of the verb:

Since the dishes were washed, she went to bed.

The broken computer sat on the floor. 


Common Mistakes

There are many irregular verbs (about 250) that confuse people 
when forming past tense and past participles. Here is a sample of 
irregular verbs. 

-------------------------------------------------------------------
Present Tense 		 Past Tense 		 Past Participle 
-------------------------------------------------------------------
drink 			 drank 			 drunk 
be 			 was, were 		 been 
eat 			 ate 			 eaten 
see 			 saw 			 seen 
swim 			 swam 			 swum 
------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Auxiliary Verbs  

Auxiliary or helping verbs are verbs that are used to help form 
verb phrases but cannot do so independently. There are four basic 
auxiliary verb groups. They are 'to be', 'to have', 'modal 
auxiliaries', and 'to do'. 
 

'To Be' is used in the progressive tenses and passive voice: 

Progressive Tense:
He is kicking.
He was kicking.
He has been kicking. 

Passive Voice:
He is kicked.
He was kicked.
He has been kicked. 


'To Have' is used as an auxiliary in the perfect tense:

He have finished his homework.
He had finished homework.
He have been finished with homework. 


Modal Auxiliaries affect the mood of the verb; that is, they 
determine whether a verb is a fact, desire, possiblity, or 
command. They are most commonly used to represent degrees of 
freedom or severity.  

Most common modal auxiliaries are 'will', 'shall', 'can', 'may', 
'need (to)', 'dare', 'would', 'should', 'could', 'might', 'must', 
and 'ought (to)'.

Ability: He can run.
Necessity: He must run.
Obligation: He ought to run.
Permission: He may run.   


'To Do' is used when the main verb of the sentence requires aid 
of an auxiliary, but there is no other helping verb that will fit. 
It is often used in questions, negative or emphatic statements:

Does she drive?
She drives, doesn't she?
Despite her flat tire, she does drive. 

Perfect and Progressive Verb Forms  

The perfect form is the verb tense used to indicate a completed, 
or "perfected," action or condition. Verbs can appear in any one 
of three perfect tenses: present perfect, past perfect, and future 
perfect.

Verbs in the perfect form use a form of "have" or "had" + the past 
participle. It is the form of the helping verb that indicates the 
tense. Here are some examples:

Present Perfect: Mary has finished her project already.
Past Perfect: I had read the book for two hours before lunch.
Future Perfect: Joe will have finished by the time his brother 
returns home.   


The progressive form is a verb tense used to show an ongoing action 
in progress at some point in time. It shows an action still in 
progress. Verbs can appear in any one of three progressive tenses: 
present progressive, past progressive, and future progressive.

The verbs in the progressive form use a form of "to be" + the 
present participle (an -ing verb). It is the form of the helping 
verb that indicates the tense. Here are some examples:

Present Progressive: The cake is baking slowly.
Past Progressive: The flowers were waving back and forth.
Future Progressive: The kids will be crying.   


The perfect and progressive forms can be combined, as in the 
following examples to help verbs indicates the tense:

Present Perfect Progressive: Jack has been reading for two hours.
Past Perfect Progressive: Jack had been reading for two hours.
Future Perfect Progressive: Jack will have been reading for two 
hours.

Regular and Irregular Verbs  

Verbs are subdivided into two groups, regular verbs and irregular 
verbs, on the basis of how their past tense and past participles 
are formed.   


Regular Verbs are those whose past tense and past participles are 
formed by adding a -d or an -ed to the end of the verb. Here is an 
example:

roll rolled rolled

Sometimes the last consonant must be doubled before adding the -ed 
ending. For example:

plan planned planned   

 
For irregular Verbs, there is no formula to predict how an irregular 
verb will form its past-tense and past-participle forms. Some of 
these forms are common:

break broke broken
cut cut cut
run ran run
meet met met
come came come
repay repaid repaid
swim swam swum
be was/were been   
 

Tip: If only one form of the verb is listed in the dictionary, the 
verb is regular. Otherwise, it is irregular verb.

Verb Mood  

Verbs may be in one of three moods: indicative, imperative, or 
subjunctive. The indicative mood is used to make factual statements. 
The imperative mood makes a request or a command. The subjunctive 
mood can express a doubt or a wish using clauses beginning with if 
or that; it can also express a request, demand, or proposal in a 
clause beginning with that. Here are some examples:


Indicative mood

Present indicative: Mary often laughs at home.
Past indicative: Mary often laughed at home.
Future indicative: Mary will laugh at home tomorrow.   


Imperative mood

Call me tomorrow.
Take a seat!   


Subjunctive mood
  

Jack talks about grammar as if he were an expert. (Expresses doubt 
or an idea contrary to fact.) 
I wish that I were an only winner. (Expresses a wish.)   


Present Subjunctive

Our teacher requests that the homework be turned in on time. 
(Expresses a request.) 
The rules require that each student come with no food. 
(Expresses a demand.) 
I suggest that the heat be reduced. 
(indicating a proposal.)   
 

Auxiliary verbs could, would, and should might also express the 
subjunctive mood, especially when one expresses a condition contrary 
to fact. 

Examples: 
--------------------------------------------------------------------
Past subjunctive 		 Condition contrary to fact 
--------------------------------------------------------------------
If the forecaster were correct,  If the forecaster could be correct, 
I would be prepared. 		 I would be prepared. 
-------------------------------------------------------------------- 
If the company were to fly her,  If the company would fly her, 
she would interview.		 she would interview. 
--------------------------------------------------------------------
If Joe were to marry Ann, 	 If Joe should marry Ann, 
he would be happy. 		 he would be happy. 
--------------------------------------------------------------------
 
Verbs that are often followed by that clauses with subjunctive verbs: 
announce, ask, as if, as though, demand, determine, indicate, insist, 
move, order, prefer, propose, recommend, request, require, and suggest. 

The Introduction of Adjectives  

Adjectives are words that are used to modify a noun. For example: 
hot weather (the adjective "hot" describes the noun "weather") 

There are three kinds of adjectives known as the positive, 
comparative, and superlative forms, as in green, greener, greenest.   


Adjectives can be grouped into seven categories:
1) nouns as adjectives
2) adjectives that modify an object
3) numbers as adjectives
4) pronouns and articles as adjectives
5) multiple adjectives
6) compound adjectives
7) adjectives used as nouns


1. Nouns as adjectives

a. A noun can be used to qualify (or describe) another noun, as 
in goose feathers, in which case there are no comparative or 
superlative forms such as "gooser" or "goosest."

b. Some nouns can be made into an adjective by adding an ending 
such as -ish, -like, -ly, -y, -en, -al, -ar, -ory. For examples:

Jack acts in a childish manner.
My, what a manly figure she has.
Mary's teeth are yellowish in color.
They were sitting at a wooden table.
Joe works at the computer consulting company.
What a wonderful show!
Their program is going through a transitory period.

Often, the endings -en and -al will be dropped, and the noun form 
will be used by itself, as in oak table, wool shirt, and coast line.  


2. Adjectives that modify an object

a. Adjectives such as 'like' and 'worth' may be used to modify 
objects. For examples:

This food tastes like soap.
Her computer is worth 10 dollars.

b. Sometimes prepositions like "of" and "with" are used to form 
adjectives. For examples:

She is afraid of cats.
Parents should not be impatient with kids.   


3. Numbers as adjectives

Any words related to number are considered adjectives, including  
"two," "twenty," "few," "many," "dozen," "third," and so on. 


4. Pronouns and articles as adjectives

a. Pronouns such as "this," "that," and "those" used to modify a 
noun are called demonstrative adjectives.

b. Possessive pronouns such as "my," "your," and "his" used to 
modify a noun are called possessive adjectives.

c. Articles such as "a," "an," and "the" are also adjectives. 


5. Multiple adjectives

When using more than one adjective to modify a noun, the adjectives 
may be separated by a conjunction or by commas. For examples:

Her teeth are strong and beautiful. 
She has strong, beautiful teeth. 


6. Compound adjectives

a. Nouns and adjectives may be combined to modify another noun, in 
which case the word can be hyphenated (although the hyphen is often 
a matter of personal preference). For examples:

He is a warm-hearted guy.
Jack is empty-headed at night.

b. Past participles of verbs can also be used as adjectives, such 
as native born, foreign made, soft spoken, warmly dressed, well 
behaved, and so on. 

 
7. Adjectives used as nouns

It is possible to use an adjective as a noun by simply using the 
adjective as the subject and omitting the noun it modifies. Usually, 
adjectives used as nouns refer to a specific quality shared by a 
group (the rich) or a specific human characteristic shared by a 
group of people (the stupid). For examples:

We moderns are to the ancients what the poor are to the rich.

The Introduction of Adverbs  

An adverb is a word or group of words that modify verbs, adjectives, 
or other adverbs. They come in three different classes: simple, 
interrogative, and conjunctive.   


A simple adverb is used as a simple modifier telling manner, time, 
place, degree, or number. For examples:

Joe was sick yesterday.
The desk belongs there.
She looked extremely ugly.
He came to the party last.   


An interrogative adverb asks a question. For examples:

Where has she been?   


A conjunctive adverb connects independent clauses. Some common 
conjunctive adverbs are accordingly, also, anyhow, besides, 
consequently, however, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, still, 
then, therefore, and yet. Use a semicolon before the conjunctive 
adverb to join the two clauses. For examples:

Mike did not work hard; however, he still got good marks. 
 

Common Mistakes 

Most is an adjective, but almost is an adverb
Easy is an adjective, but easily is an adverb
Good is an adjective, but well is an adverb   

Comparatives and Superlatives of Adjectives  

The comparative is the second or middle degree of comparison 
in adjectives while the superlative is the third or highest 
degree of comparison in adjectives. 


The comparative and superlative degrees are formed by adding 
the -er and -est suffix to adjectives with a single 
consonant for an ending. 

-------------------------------- 
Root 	Comparative  Superlative 
--------------------------------
big  	bigger  	 biggest 
--------------------------------

Adjectives ending in -y drop the -y and add an -ier 
in the comparative degree and an -iest in the superlative degree: 

----------------------------------------------------
Root 		Comparative  	Superlative 
----------------------------------------------------
dry  		drier  		driest 
----------------------------------------------------

Adjectives ending in the silent or mute -e drop the 
ending -e and add the -er for the comparative and the -est for 
the superlative: 

-----------------------------------------------------
Root 		 Comparative  		Superlative 
-----------------------------------------------------
pale  		paler  			palest 
free  		freer  			freest 
-----------------------------------------------------
 
Degrees of comparison can also be distinguished with the use of 
more and most: more clever; most clever 

Irregular adjectives: 

------------------------------------------------------
Root 		Comparative  		Superlative 
------------------------------------------------------
good  		better  		best 
bad  		worse  			worst 
much  		more  			most 
little  	less  			least 
far  		farther			farthest
		further  		furthest 
old  		older 			oldest
 		elder			eldest 
------------------------------------------------------ 

Comparatives and Superlatives of Adverbs  

The comparative is the second or middle degree of comparison 
in adverbs while the superlative is the third or 
highest degree of comparison in adverbs. 


The comparative and superlative degrees are formed by adding 
the -er and -est suffix to adverbs with a single 
consonant for an ending. 

----------------------------------------------------  
Root 		Comparative  		Superlative 
----------------------------------------------------
soon  		sooner  		soonest 
----------------------------------------------------

Adverbs ending in -y drop the -y and add an -ier 
in the comparative degree and an -iest in the superlative degree: 

----------------------------------------------------
Root 		Comparative  	Superlative 
----------------------------------------------------
early  		earlier  	earliest 
----------------------------------------------------

Adverbs ending in the silent or mute -e drop the 
ending -e and add the -er for the comparative and the -est for 
the superlative: 

-----------------------------------------------------
Root 		 Comparative  		Superlative 
-----------------------------------------------------
late  		later  			latest 
-----------------------------------------------------
 
Degrees of comparison can also be distinguished with the use of 
more and most: more efficiently; most efficiently 

Irregular adverbs: 

------------------------------------------------------
Root 		Comparative  		Superlative 
------------------------------------------------------
badly  		worse  			worst 
far  		farther 		farthest
		further 		furthest 
little  	less  			least 
much  		more  			most 
well  		better  		best 
------------------------------------------------------ 

The Introduction of Conjunctions  

Conjunctions are grammatical connectors that link words, phrases 
or clauses. A conjunction can indicate the relationship between 
the elements that it connects in the sentence. There are three 
types of conjunctions: coordinating, correlative, and subordinating.   


Coordinating Conjunctions
A coordinating conjunction connects words, phrases, and clauses 
that have equal or the same grammatical functions, The coordinating 
conjunctions include 'and', 'but', 'or', 'yet', 'nor', 'for', 
'and so'. For examples:

Connecting nouns: Mary will buy a computer and a scanner.
Connecting verbs: Jack did not call nor write his teacher.
Connecting adjectives: The toy was big but weird.
Connecting dependent clauses: If the students show and the teacher 
is prepared, class will be productive.
Connecting independent clauses: Two thousand students applied to 
the university, but only five hundred were admitted.   


Correlative Conjunctions
A correlative conjunction is a coordinating conjunction that works 
in pairs to connect elements in a sentence. The correlative 
conjunctions include 'both...and', 'not...but', 'not only...but also', 
'either...or', 'neither...nor', 'although...yet', and 'whether...or'. 
For examples:

Connecting nouns: The name of the computer is not Dall but Dell.
Connecting adjectives: Your employer should provide both health and 
life insurance.
Connecting prepositional phrases: Apple juice is made either by 
squeezing apples or by mixing a can of frozen concentrate.
Connecting independent clauses: Not only did Jack eat the rice, but 
he also ate the bread.   


Subordinating Conjunctions
A subordinating conjunction connects elements with different 
grammatical functions, usually a dependent and an independent clause. 
The subordinating conjunctions include 'after', 'in case', 'unless', 
'although', 'in that', 'until', 'as', 'now that', 'when', 'as if', 
'once', 'whenever', 'as though', 'since', 'where', 'because', 'so', 
'whereas', 'before', 'so that', 'whether', 'even though', 'than', 
'which', 'except that', 'that', 'while', 'however', 'though', 
'who/whom', and 'if'. For examples:

Joe acts as though he has done something wrong.
Jack is not sure that the teacher will give him the good mark.
When the bell rings, the students must keep quiet.
Since the dog disappeared, the boy has been sad.

Conjunctive Adverbs  

A conjunctive adverb is an adverb that connects independent 
clauses. Some of the most common conjunctive adverbs are 
'however', 'moreover', 'nevertheless', and 'therefore'.   
 

Usage
Conjunctive adverbs require semicolons:
The project will probably be successful; however, I don't know 
when it will be.


Common Pitfalls
Conjunctive adverbs are often confused with coordinating 
conjunctions such as 'and', 'but', 'for', 'nor', 'or', 'yet' 
or 'while'. One difference is that coordinating conjunctions 
join clauses of equal rank and conjunctive adverbs do not. 
Another difference is that conjunctive adverbs are not true 
linking devices themselves, as indicated by their needing 
semicolons:

I don't have enough butter for my bread; therefore, I'll buy 
butter to make my bread taste better.


Flexibility 
The flexibility of the conjunctive adverb in the sentence also 
indicates they aren't true linking devices like coordinating 
conjunctions. For example, the second part of this sentence 
could also be written:

...I will therefore buy some butter to make my bread taste better.

The Introduction of Prepositions  

A preposition is a word or group of words that shows the 
relationship--in time, space, or some other senses--between its 
object (the noun or pronoun that follows the preposition) and 
another word in the sentence:

Mary put her books into a bag.
('In' shows the spatial relationship between the verb 'put' 
and the object of the preposition 'bag'.)

Jack kicked the ball into his room. ('into' indicates the 
direction which the ball traveled.)   

There are three kinds of prepositions, simple, compound, and 
phrasal. The following are representative examples of each:

1. Simple: into, for, off, with
2. Compound: alongside, throughout, underneath
3. Phrasal: across from, near to, in place of   


A list of most of the common prepositions in English:

aboard, about, above, according to, across, across from, after, 
against, along, alongside, alongside of, along with, amid, among, 
apart from, around, aside from, at, away from, back of, because of, 
before, behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between, beyond, 
but, by, by means of, concerning, considering, despite, down, 
down from, during, except, except for, excepting for, from, 
from among, from between, from under, in, in addition to, 
in behalf of, in front of, in place of, in regard to, inside, 
inside of, in spite of, instead of, into, like, near, near to, of, 
off, on, on account of, on behalf of, onto, on top of, opposite, 
out, out of, outside, outside of, over, over to, owing to, past, 
prior to, regarding, round, round about, save, since, subsequent to, 
together, with, through, throughout, till, to, toward, under, 
underneath, until, unto, up, up to, upon, with, within, without   

 
A prepositional phrase includes the preposition, the object of the 
preposition, and the modifiers of the object. It may function as an 
adverb or an adjective:

The cat climbed on the table.
(The phrase describes 'climbed', so it's an adverb.)

The park by the lake is a great place to play soccer.
(The phrase acts as an adjective because it gives more information 
about the park.)

The Introduction of Interjections  

Interjections are words or expressions which are inserted into a 
sentence to convey surprise, strong emotion, or to gain attention. 
Interjections are usually placed at the beginning of a sentence. 
They have no grammatical connection to the sentence in which they 
occur; therefore, interjections may stand alone. In addition, if 
an interjection is mild, it is followed by a comma. If it is 
strong, it is followed by an exclamation point. In no instance 
should an interjection with a comma or exclamation point be 
followed by a period or comma respectively.

Examples include words like: Oh, Darn, Hey, and Well.

The following are two examples of the proper usage of 
interjections in sentences:

Well, I suppose we should go out tomorrow.
Oh, man, my hair's on fire!

Noun Phrases  

A noun phrase is a made up of a noun and all its modifiers. It 
can function in a sentence as a subject, an object, or a complement. 
Some noun phrases begin with an infinitive (to go) or a gerund 
(going); this type of noun phrase is always singular:

To have a computer was her dream. (subject)
Tom likes green salad. (object)
A ham sandwich is a popular lunch. (complement)

Verb Phrases  

A verb phrase is a phrase (a group of related words lacking a 
subject or a verb) that consists of a main verb plus one or more 
helping verbs.

Some common helping verbs are:
to be (am, is, are, was, were, be, being, been)
to have (has, have, had)
to do (do, does, did)
others: may, might, must, can, could, shall, should, will, would

Helping verbs add meaning to other verbs. Some helping verbs 
change the time expressed by the key verb. Others, such as 'should' 
and 'might', are used to indicate obligation, possibility, ability, 
or permission. Here are some examples:

The student is going to Toronto for March Break.
The company will probably not hire an accountant within weeks.
Mary should try to edit her own compositions.   

Prepositional Phrases  

A prepositional phrase is a group of words including a preposition 
and a noun, pronoun, or group of words used as a noun. They are 
fragments that usually do not stand alone, except in commands like 
"At once!" or "On your feet!". There are two kinds of prepositional 
phrases. They are adjective phrases and adverb phrases.

An adjective phrase modifies a noun or pronoun. It always comes 
immediately after the noun or pronoun it modifies. Here is an 
example:

Jack is the student in black. ("in black" modifies student.)


An adverb phrase modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb. It is used 
to tell when, where, how, or to what extent about the word it 
modifies. Here is an example:

Mary put her book on the desk. 
("on the desk" tells where about the verb put.) 


Two or More Phrases
When two or more prepositional phrases follow each other, they 
may modify the same word, or one phrase may modify the object in 
the preceding phrase. Here is two examples:

Joe arrived at the airport on time.
(Both phrases modify arrived; "at the airport" tells where and 
"on time" tells when.)

Chicago is on the northeast tip of Illinois.
("on the northeast tip" modifies "is"; "of Illinois" modifies "tip.")   


Preposition or Adverb?
Many words can be either prepositions or adverbs; you can 
distinguish prepositions by their objects.

Preposition: The cat ran out the house.
("house" is the object of "out.")

Adverb: My brother went out yesterday.
("out" has no object.)


Prepositional Phrase or Infinitive Phrase?
Prepositional phrases can be confused with infinitive phrases. 
"To" followed by a verb is an infinitive, but "to" followed by a 
noun or pronoun is a prepositional phrase.

Verbals and Verbal Phrases  

Verbals are verb forms which act as another part of speech in 
a sentence (i.e. as adjectives, nouns, and adverbs). 

Verbal phrases are verbals and any of the verb form's modifiers, 
objects or complements. The three types of verbal phrases are 
participial, gerund, and infinitive phrases. 


1) Participial Phrases are present participles or past participles 
and any modifiers, objects or complements. Participial phrases 
contain verbs which act as adjectives in a sentence. Here are some 
examples:


Singing very softly, my mother lulled her baby to sleep.
(participial phrase as adjective modifying 'my mother')

The students, frightened by the police car's headlights, quickly 
came down from the school's roof.
(participial phrase as adjective modifying "students") 


2) Gerund Phrases contain verbs ending in -ing and any modifiers, 
objects, or complements. Gerund phrases act as nouns in a sentence. 
They can act as the subject or object of a verb, as a predicate 
nominative, and as the object of a preposition. Here are some 
examples:


Waiting for her boy-friend drove her crazy.
(gerund phrase as subject of verb)

The lady denied knowing this man.
(gerund phrase as object of verb)

You can get there earlier by speeding up your car.
(gerund phrase as object of preposition)

Making many friends is good for anyone.
(gerund phrases as subject and as predicate nominative) 


3) Infinitive Phrases contain verbals consisting of 'to' followed 
by a verb and any modifiers, objects, or complements. Infinitive 
phrases usually act as nouns, but they can also act as adjectives 
and adverbs. Here are some examples:


To live in Toronto eventually is his dream.
(infinitive phrase as subject)

Mary loves to babble during interviews.
(infinitive phrase as object of verb)

Do you have any clothes to donate for the homeless people?
(infinitive phrase as adjective modifying clothes)

Mary will go home to visit her family next week.
(infinitive phrase as adverb modifying went)

Clause Types  

A clause is a group of words that includes a subject and a 
predicate. There are two types of clauses: independent and 
dependent. An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence, 
while a dependent clause must be accompanied by an independent 
clause.   

 
Independent Clauses
1. Two independent clauses can be connected by a coordinating 
conjunction. Here is an example:

It is Monday today and our project is due Friday.

2. Two independent clauses can be connected by a conjunctive adverb 
or another transitional expression. Here is an example:

Mary has to study for her test; in fact she am going to the school 
library tomorrow.
(In this case, use a semicolon to separate the two clauses.)

3. Two independent clauses can be connected by a correlative 
conjunction. Here is an example:

Jack not only finished his project on time, but he also got a 
good mark.

4. Two independent clauses can be connected by a semicolon. 
Here is an example:

This is one of English classes; Shakespeare is my other.
 
5. Two independent clauses can be connected by a colon (sometimes). 
Here is an example:

She got the project: it needs to be turned in next week.


Dependent Clauses
Dependent clauses can be either adjective, adverb, or noun clauses 
based on how they are used in a sentence.

Adjective (or relative) clauses modify nouns or pronouns and, in 
order to make the relationship clear, follow the noun or pronoun 
they modify. Here is an example:

Our class, which meets at 10:00 next morning, discusses the 
importance of grammar.
(An adjective clause modifies the noun class.)

 
Adverb clauses modify single words (verbs, adjectives, or adverbs) 
or entire phrases or clauses. They always begin with a subordinating 
conjunction. Adverb clauses answer the questions how? where? when? 
why? and to what extent? Adverb clauses appear in any of several 
places in the sentence as long as the relationship is clear and 
its position conveys the intended purpose. Here is an example:

Confused, after class was over, Mary decided to discuss the project 
with her friend.
(An adverb clause modifies the participle confused.)

 
Noun clauses act as nouns in sentences (subjects, direct objects, 
indirect objects, or compliments). They may begin with a relative 
pronoun or by, whether, when, where, why, or how. Here is an example:

Whoever wins the race will receive a P4 computer.
(A noun clause serves as the subject of the sentence.)

This grade is what I deserve.
(A noun clause serves as the subject complement.) 

Adjective Clauses  

Adjective clauses modify nouns or pronouns. An adjective clause 
nearly always appears immediately following the noun or pronoun.

To test for adjective clauses there are a couple of questions that 
you can ask. Which one? What kind of? Most adjective clauses begin 
with who, whom, which or that. Sometimes the word may be understood.  
The words that or who, for example, might not specifically be in the 
sentence, but they could be implied. To determine the subject of a 
clause ask who? or what? and then insert the verb. Here is an example:

The book that is on the floor should be returned to the library 
immediately.

Occasionally, an adjective clause is introduced by a relative adverb, 
usually when, where or why. Here is an example:

School is the place where you study.   

Adverbial Clauses  

Adverbial clauses usually modify verbs, in which case they may appear 
anywhere in a sentence. They tell why, where, under what conditions, 
or to what degree the action occurred or situation existed. Unlike 
adjective clauses, they are frequently movable within the sentence. 
Here is the example:

When the bell rings, we know that it is the time for class.
OR
we know that it is the time for class when the bell rings. 

Adverbial clauses always begin with a subordinating conjunction. 
Subordinating conjunctions introduce clauses and express their 
relation to the rest of the sentence.   

Noun Clauses  

Noun clauses are not modifiers, so they are not subordinators like 
adjectives and adverbs, and they cannot stand alone. They must 
function within another sentence pattern, always as nouns. A noun 
clause functions as a subject, subject complement, direct object or 
object of a preposition.

A noun clause usually begins with a relative pronoun like that, 
which, who, whoever, whomever, whose, what, and whatsoever. It can 
also begin with the subordinating conjunctions how, when, where, 
whether, why. Here is an example:

Whoever wins the game will play in the tournament.

Relative Clauses  

A relative clause acts as a clause that modifies a noun or pronoun. 
Relative clauses begin with a relative pronoun (who, whom, which, 
that, whose). Relative clauses can either be restrictive or 
nonrestrictive. 

Restrictive Relative Clauses is essential in order to complete the 
meaning of the main clause. Here are some examples:

Where is the boy who is going out with me tomorrow?
That's the computer which I really want to buy.
Is this the lady whose computer is stolen? 


Nonrestrictive Relative Clauses
A nonrestrictive relative clause adds definition to the main clause, 
but is not necessary for meaning. Nonrestrictive relative clauses 
are set off by commas. Here are some examples:

That girl, who is going to the concert, is in blue.
The orange car, which is my favorite, has four doors.
The consultant, whose house is on fire, just went to his company.   


Common Usage Problems

Beware of sentence fragments when trying to use a relative clause:

She was a winner. Who never thought she would lose. [incorrect]
She was a winner who never thought she would lose. [revised]


The relative pronoun should immediately follow the antecedent in a 
relative clause. Violating this rule leads to confusion:

She saw the guy who dated Mary who has a red hat. [unclear]
Does Mary or the guy have a red hat? [confusing]

Revised:
She saw the guy, who has a red hat, who dated Mary.

Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clauses  

A modifying clause can be either restrictive or non-restrictive. 


A restrictive modifying clause (or essential clause) is an adjective
clause that is essential to the meaning of a sentence because it
limits the thing it refers to. The meaning of the sentence would
change if the clause were deleted. Because restrictive clauses are
essential, they are not set off by commas. Here are some examples:

All students who do their homework won't fail the test.
The computer that I want is out of my price range.
The gas company will discontinue our service unless we pay our bills 
by Friday.   


A non-restrictive modifying clause (or nonessential clause) is an
adjective clause that adds extra or nonessential information to a
sentence. The meaning of the sentence would not change were the
clause omitted. Non-restrictive modifying clauses are usually set off
by commas. Here are some examples:

Ray, who developed many educational software is a great Canadian 
software developer.
Puerto Rico was a Spanish colony until 1898, when it was ceded to the 
United States.

Sentence Types  

Sentences can be either simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex.   


The Simple Sentence
Simple sentences have only one independent clause. There are no 
dependent clauses, and the sentence must be limited to one subject 
and one predicate. The sentence may contain modifying words or phrases. 
Here are two examples:

Computer programming is not hard. 
Jack is an elementary school student.   


The Compound Sentence
Compound sentences are composed of two or more independent clauses, 
which are joined by a coordinating conjunction or a semicolon. One 
should always use a comma before any coordinating conjunction that 
connects two independent clauses. Here are two examples:

Mary likes computer programming, but she thinks that programming in 
C++ is hard. 
Joe likes eating apples, so he does not like eating pears.  


The Complex Sentence
Complex sentences use one independent clause and one or more dependent 
clauses. Here is an example:

When I have problems at school, I always go to ask the teacher. 
("When I..." is a dependent clause, "I always..." is an independent 
clause.)   


The Compound-Complex Sentence
The compound-complex sentence joins a compound and a complex sentence 
together. It should contain two or more independent clauses and one 
or more dependent clause.

Joe likes computer programming, and he bought lots of books, which 
are very important to him. 


Comma Usage                                                           

For proper comma usage with each sentence type, see Restrictive and 
Non-restrictive Clauses.

Subjects  

The complete subject is the simple subject (a noun or a pronoun) 
plus any words or group of words modifying the simple subject that 
tells who or what the sentence is about. Here is an example:

The book from Toronto will be sold out by tomorrow.

To find the complete subject, ask Who? or What? insert the verb, 
and finish the question. The answer is the complete subject:

What will be sold by tomorrow? The book from Toronto.   


The simple subject is the essential noun, pronoun, or group of 
words acting as a noun that cannot be left out of the complete 
subject. In order to identify it, remove the complements and 
modifiers and whatever left is the simple subject: 

The book from Toronto will be sold out by tomorrow.

----------------------------------------
The: article       
book: simple subject            
from Toronto: prepositional phrase  	       
will be sold out by tomorrow: predicate  
----------------------------------------
   
TIP: Does the sentence make sense with just the word ("book") 
identified as the simple subject?

(The) book will be sold by tomorrow.   

 
Additional Facts About Subjects
1) The "Understood You"
Sometimes, as in the case of imperative sentences (see verb mood ), 
the subject does not actually appear in the sentence. At such times 
the invisible subject is called the "understood you":
(You) Rent the book from Toronto.


2) Positioning
Although the subject most commonly appears before the verb, it can 
also appear after it appears in

a. Sentences that begin with "there is" or "there are." "There" is 
an expletive or empty word which simply gets the sentence started. 
Here is an example:

There are many good computer programming books in this library. vs. 
Many good computer programming books are in this library.


b. Sentences that are inverted for effect:

Happy is Mary's husband. vs. Mary's husband is happy. 


Compound Subjects

Although the examples so far have contained only one subject, 
a sentence may contain a compound subject.

The compound subject consists of two or more subjects that have 
the same verb and are joined by a conjunction such as "and" or 
"or". Here is an example:

Mary and Tom are good computer programmer.

Predicates  

The complete predicate is the verb plus its objects, complements, 
and adverbial modifiers that tell what the complete subject does 
or is:

The book from Toronto will be sold out by tomorrow.

To find the complete predicate, ask What does the subject (the 
high) do? 

(It) will be sold out by tomorrow.   


The simple predicate is the essential verb or verb phrase that 
cannot be left out of the complete predicate. Again, remove the 
modifiers and complements to identify it: 

The book from Toronto will be sold by tomorrow.

-----------------------------------
The: article      
book: simple subject      
from Toronto: prepositional phrase            
will: adverb    
be sold: simple predicate             
by tomorrow: prepositional phrase 
-----------------------------------

TIP: Does the sentence make sense with just the word identified 
as the simple predicate?

The book from Toronto will be sold. 

    
Compound Predicates

Although the examples so far have contained only one verb, 
a sentence may contain a compound predicate.

The compound predicate consists of two or more verbs that have 
the same subject and are joined by a conjunction such as "and" 
or "or". Here is an example:

I came, saw, and understood.

Objects  

Objects can be divided into direct objects and indirect objects.

A direct object is the word or words in a sentence designating 
the person or thing receiving the action of a transitive verb. 
Here is an example:

The waiter broke the dish.

An indirect object comes before the direct object. It tells to 
whom or for whom the action of the verb is being done. Here is 
an example: 

Pass me a book. 

Objects  

Objects can be divided into direct objects and indirect objects.

A direct object is the word or words in a sentence designating 
the person or thing receiving the action of a transitive verb. 
Here is an example:

The waiter broke the dish.

An indirect object comes before the direct object. It tells to 
whom or for whom the action of the verb is being done. Here is 
an example: 

Pass me a book. 

Adverbials  

An adverbial can be a single-word adverb like 'here', 'there', 'now', 
'then', and 'often'. Here is an example:

Read after me now.

An adverbial can also be an adverbial phrase like 'two years ago'. 
Here is an example: 

Mary returned the book two years ago. 

Adverbials can be found in three main positions: at the end, at the 
beginning, or in the middle of a sentence. Here are examples:

Tom did not go to school yesterday.
Tom often plays soccer on Sundays.
Several days ago Tom bought a computer.

Complements  

A complement completes the predicate in a sentence. There are two 
kinds of complements: object complements and subject complements.   

Object Complements

An object complement follows the direct object and modifies or refers 
to the direct object. An object complement can be an adjective, a 
noun, or a word or word group acting as an adjective or noun. Here 
are three examples:

If you elect me president, I'll keep the unions satisfied.
("President" is an object complement referring to the direct object 
"me." "Satisfied" is an object complement modifying the direct object 
"unions.")

The general manager appointed Tom department manager.
("department manager" is an object complement referring to the direct 
object "Tom.")

Wool gloves will keep your hands warm.
("warm" is an object complement modifying the direct object "your 
hands.")   


Subject Complements

A subject complement follows a linking verb and modifies or refers 
to the subject. A subject complement can be an adjective, a noun, 
a pronoun, or a word or word group acting as an adjective or noun. 
Here are some examples: 

I am a teacher, but I am not yet experienced.

("Teacher" and "experienced" are both subject complements that 
modify the subject "I.") 

Subject complements have two subgroups, predicate adjectives and 
predicate nouns.  

A predicate adjective is a subject complement that is an adjective 
(see appositives): 

I am not yet experienced.

("Experienced" is a predicate adjective that modifies the subject "I.")   

A predicate noun (Nominative) is a subject complement that is a noun: 

He is a student.

("student" is a predicate noun that refers to the subject "He.")

Appositives  

Appositives are two words or word groups which mean the same 
thing and are placed together. Appositives identify or explain 
the nouns or pronouns which they modify. Here is an example:

Mary, my friend, loves computer programming. 

We can say that "my friend" is an appositive or is in apposition 
to "Mary." "my friend" identifies or explains "Mary". 

 
An appositive phrase includes an appositive and its modifiers. 
Here is an example:

My favorite place, the CN Tower, is located in Toronto, a place 
near the Lake Ontario.   

  
A restrictive appositive is necessary to maintain the meaning of 
the sentence and does not require commas. Usually, a restrictive 
appositive is a single word closely related to the preceding word. 
It "restricts" or narrows the meaning of the word it modifies. 
Here are examples:

The computer programmer Tom will come to Toronto.
("Tom" restricts the general term "computer programmer.")

My brother Jack has two cats.   


A nonrestrictive appositive may be omitted without changing the 
basic meaning of the sentence. A nonrestrictive appositive is 
separated by commas. Commas are always used when the word which 
the appositive modifies is a proper noun. Here are examples:

Tom, the computer programmer, will come to Toronto.
("computer programmer" offers additional information about the 
specific name "Tom")

There are many parades for Mardi Gras, a religious festival 
celebrating the last day before Lent, in New Orleans, a city in 
Louisiana.   

 
Additional note
A dash or colon, as well as a comma, can be used to set off 
appositives. Here is an example:

For the students there was only one goal--get good marks.

Active and Passive Voice  

The voice of a verb tells whether the subject of the sentence 
performs or receives the action. There are two voices, passive 
and active. 

In active voice, the subject performs the action expressed by 
the verb. Here is an example:

Mary sang a song.       

In passive voice, the subject receives the action expressed by 
the verb. Here is an example: 

A song was sung by Mary.


Forming Tenses of Passive Verbs
The passive voice always consists of two parts: a form of the 
verb "to be" + past participle: 

-----------------------------------------------
Tense             Passive voice form 
-----------------------------------------------
Present           it is cleaned 
Past              it was cleaned  
Future            it will be cleaned 
Present perfect   it has been cleaned  
Past perfect      it had been cleaned  
Future perfect    it will have been cleaned 
-----------------------------------------------

Uses of Passive Voice

1. Use the passive voice to call attention to receiver of the 
action rather than the performer. Here is an example:

The manager was hit by a car. 
 
2. Use the passive voice to point out the receiver of the action 
when performer is unknown or unimportant. Here are two examples:

A letter was slipped under the door.
The note will be mailed. 
 
3. Use the passive voice to avoid calling attention to the 
performer of the action (known as the "institutional passive"). 
Here is an example:

The project will be collected in next week. 
 

Active and Passive Voice in Writing
The choice between using the active or passive voice in writing 
is a matter of style, not correctness. However, most handbooks 
recommend using active voice, which they describe as more natural, 
direct, lively, and succinct. The passive voice is considered 
wordy and weak (except when used in cases above). Examine the 
following examples. 

The skater was slammed into the wall by Maria. (weak)
Maria slammed the skater into the wall. (strong)

The book was enjoyed by me because the events of her childhood 
were described so well by the author. (weak)
I enjoyed the book because the author described the events of 
her childhood so well. (strong)
 

Hints for identifying the Passive Voice 

1. An active verb may or may not have a direct object, but the 
passive verb almost never does. 
 
 "It is...That" construction (It is clear that... It is noted...) 

2. Use of the verbs To Be, Make, or Have (Passive: Your exits 
should be made quickly. Active: Leave quickly.) 

3. Endings that turn verbs into abstract nouns: -ion,-ing,-ment: 

Passive: When application of force is used, the lid will open.
Active: Apply force to open the lid.

Homophones  

Homophones are words that sound alike but have different 
spellings and meanings. As a result, these words are often 
confused in writing. Here are some examples:


Accept (to receive): "I don't accept his apology."
Except (excluded from): "Joe like everybody except Mary."

Capital (economic resources OR the city where lawmakers meet)
Capitol (the building where lawmakers meet)

Principal (head of a school): "Is the principal your buddy?"
Principle (a moral or fundamental truth): "I won't do this 
because it is against my principles."

There (meaning "in that place"): "The scanner is over there."
Their (possessive pronoun "belonging to them"): "Their CD"
They're (contraction for "they are"): "They're coming tomorrow."

Its (possessive pronoun): "The cat lost its bone."
It's (contraction for "it is"): "It's a shame you can't come."

Parallelism  

Parallelism occurs when compound verbs or verbals express an 
action taking place at the same time or in the same tense. When 
such is the case, the verb and/or verbals must be in the same, 
or parallel, form. For example:

Jack sings and dances.
("Sings" and "dances" are parallel forms of the verb.) 
  

Types of Parallel Structure 

1. Coordinated ideas of equal rank, connected by 'and', 'but', 
'or', or 'nor'

Correct: 
Joe likes bicycling and climbing. (A gerund is paired with a 
gerund.)

Earl likes to bicycle and to climb. (An infinitive is paired 
with an infinitive.)

Incorrect:
Earl likes bicycling and to climb. (Here, a gerund is paired 
with an infinitive.)   


2. Compared ideas

Correct: 
I like watching basketball more than playing basketball.
(A gerund is paired with a gerund.)

I like to watch basketball more than I like to play basketball.
(An infinitive is paired with an infinitive.)

Incorrect:
I like to officiate basketball more than I like playing basketball.
(An infinitive is paired with a gerund.)   


3. Correlative ideas are linked with the correlative conjunctions 
'both...and', 'either...or', 'neither...nor', and 'not only...but also'.

Correct:
Jack is talented not only as a baseball player, but also as a soccer 
player.
(A noun is paired with a noun.)

Jack is talented not only at playing basetball, but also at playing 
soccer.
(A gerund is paired with a gerund.

Incorrect:
Jack is talented not only as a basetball player, but also at playing 
soccer.
(A noun is paired with a gerund.) 


NOTE:  Place correlative conjunctions immediately before the parallel 
terms:

Incorrect:
Smith has both experienced the happiness of success and the bitterness 
of defeat.

Revised:
Smith has experienced both the happiness of success and the bitterness 
of defeat.

Misplaced Modifiers  

Misplaced modifiers are single words, phrases, or clauses that 
do not point clearly to the word or words they modify. As a rule, 
related words usually should be kept together. 
  

Six Helpful Tips for Placing Modifiers Correctly 

1. Limiting modifiers (only, even, almost, nearly, just) should be 
placed in front of the words they modify.

Unclear:
You will only need to run the program once.

Revised:
You will need to run the program only once.
("Only" modifies "once," not "need.")  
 

2. Place modifying phrases and clauses so that readers can see at 
a glance what they modify.

Unclear:
The robber was described as a tall man with a black moustache 
weighing 150 pounds.

Revised:
The robber was described as a six-foot-tall man weighing 150 
pounds with a black moustache.
("150 pounds" describes the man, not the moustache.)  


3. Sentences should flow from subject to verb to object without 
lengthy detours along the way. When adverbs separate subject from 
verb, verb from object, or helping-verb from main-verb, the result 
can be awkward.

Unclear:
Joe, after failing in the exam, decided to work hard.

Revised:
After failing in the exam, Joe decided to work hard.
(Subject and verb are no longer separated.)  


4. Infinitives ("to" + verb, such as: "to go," "to catch," "to 
shout") usually should not be split unless necessary, especially 
in formal writing.

Unclear:
The patient should try to, if possible, stay in bed.

Revised:
If possible, the patient should try to stay in bed.  


5. Dangling modifiers are word groups (usually introductory) that 
may seem confusing to some people if they fail to refer logically 
to any word in a sentence. Rewording a sentence may help to clarify 
the meaning.

Unclear:
Deciding to join the army, the recruiter happily shook Jack's hand.
(The recruiter is not deciding to join the navy; Joe is.)

Revised:
The recruiter happily shook Jack's hand after learning that Jack 
had decided to join the army.

Unclear:
Though only sixteen, Dell accepted Mary's application.
(UCLA is not sixteen; Mary is.)

Revised:
Though Mary was only sixteen, Dell accepted her application.  


6. Dangling modifiers can be repaired by restructuring the sentence, 
but this restructuring may vary according to the writer's stylistic 
preferences.

Possibly unclear:
When watching films, commercials are especially irritating. 

a) One option would be to change the subject so that it names the 
actor that the modifier implies:

When watching movies, I find that commercials especially irritating.

b) Another option would be to turn the modifier into a word group 
that includes the actor:

When I am watching movies, commercials are especially irritating.

Dangling Modifiers  

A dangling modifier is a phrase or clause that does not connect 
grammatically with what it is intended to modify. The problem is 
most common with adjective participial phrases, especially when 
they open the sentence. Such open participial phrases can be 
taken to modify the noun, but when the noun is not present in 
the sentence, then the phrase becomes nonsensical. 


Problems with Dangling Modifiers 

There are two kinds of problems with dangling modifiers: 

1) A word (often a pronoun) has been left out, so that the 
introductory phrase does not complement what follows.

Unclear:
Running across the street, the bus left.


2) A phrase or word in a sentence is too far from the idea 
that it modifies.

Unclear:
A dependable car, Jack decided to buy the van. 


Correcting the Problem

There are two ways to correct dangling modifiers. 

1) The main clause can be left alone and the participial 
construction altered, usually to an adverbial phrase.

Unclear:
Running down the street, the house was on fire.

Revised:
When Mary ran down the street, her house was on fire.


2) The participial construction can be allowed to stand and the 
main clause modified so that the modified object is in the 
subject position.

Revised:
Running down the street, Mary saw her house was on fire.

Sentence Fragments  

A sentence fragment is a part of a sentence punctuated as if 
it were a complete sentence. It is a group of words that begins 
with a capital letter and ends with a period, exclamation point, 
or a question mark, but does not express a complete thought   


Phrases as Sentence Fragments
1) A word group is a sentence fragment if it lacks a subject.
Swam into the ocean.

(NOTE: Sentences in the imperative mood (e.g., "Swim into the 
ocean!") have, by convention, an understood "you" for a subject 
and are not considered fragments).

2) A word group is also a sentence fragment if it lacks a verb.
The solid wooden chair.

3) A word group missing both a subject and a predicate is a 
sentence fragment.
As in the lives of many.   


Clauses as Sentence Fragments
(Warning: These are only guidelines for spotting a sentence 
fragment, not hard and fast rules.)

A clue that a group of words may be a sentence fragment is that 
it begins with a subordinator. Often, when a group of words 
begins with a subordinator, it is a dependent clause, a clause 
that cannot stand alone as a sentence. Some common subordinators 
are 'when', 'until', 'after', 'before', 'however', 'while', 
'because', 'since', 'though', 'although', 'if', 'so that', 'so', 
and 'where'. Here is an example:

Until the day is over.

Another clue is that the word group begins with a relative 
pronoun.  Some common relative pronouns are 'that', 'who', 
'whose', 'whom', 'which', and 'when'. Here is an example:

Whom Tom had known since the first grade. 

 
Using and Misusing Sentence Fragments

Students should understand that sentence fragments can be used 
in writing, but that they should be used rarely and cautiously. 
Pointing out these structures in literature read and written in 
class might be a good way to identify the difference between 
strong use of sentence fragments and weak sentence fragments.


Misuse

It is very easy to misuse sentence fragments. The following 
piece of writing shows how this misuse can make writing unclear 
and disorganized. Here is an example:

It is my opinion that the baseball strike should end. A salary 
cap is not a bad idea. After all, the players receive huge 
salaries. More money than the president.

The last word group is a sentence fragment.

Fused Sentences, Run-ons, and Comma Splices  

A fused sentence (also known as a run-on sentence) occurs 
when two independent clauses are joined without any punctuation 
or connecting word between them. Here is the example:

It was close to fall the trees were losing their leaves.   
 
A comma splice occurs when two independent clauses are joined 
by only a comma.  

It was close to fall, the trees were losing their leaves. 


Six Ways to Eliminate Fused Sentences and Comma Splices 

1) Separate the clause into two sentences. Here is an example:
It was close to fall. The trees were losing their leaves. 

2) Link the clauses with a semicolon. Here is an example:
It was close to fall; the trees were losing their leaves. 

3) Link the clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction. 
Here is an example:
It was close to fall, so the trees were beginning to lose their 
leaves. 

4) Recast the two independent clauses as one independent clause. 
Here is an example: 
It was the time of year when trees begin to lose their leaves. 

5) Recast one of the independent clauses as a dependent clause. 
Here is an example:
Because it was close to fall, the trees were losing their leaves. 

6) Use a semicolon before a conjunctive adverb (also, anyway, 
besides, furthermore, incidentally, moreover, otherwise, and thus) 
or a transitional expression (after all, by the way, for example, 
in other words, and on the other hand) placed between independent 
clauses. Here is an example: 
It was close to fall; consequently, the trees were losing their 
leaves.